Karasov WH, Meyer MW, Darken BW. (93).]. We include a new analysis of interactions between digestive physiology and naturally occurring toxins [e.g., plant secondary metabolites (SMs)] because these biochemicals are nearly ubiquitous in foods consumed by wild animals and many of their effects are mediated through interactions with the gut. Whelan CJ, Brown JS. There are four main types of teeth in the human or dog: incisors, canines, premolars and molars. Herbivores: Their Interaction with Secondary Plant Metabolites. Peral MJ, Galvez M, Soria ML, Ilundain AA. In experiments conducted on avian species, the fractional absorption of D-glucose and 3OMD-glucose did not differ significantly; and L-glucose was found to account for the majority (range 50 to > 90%) of glucose absorption (79, 238, 316) (Fig. Most foliage and grass feeding insects assimilate the easily used compounds (sugars, starch, protein, etc.) Both figures based on data from reference (488). Proposed mechanisms for flavonoids inhibiting glucose absorption include competitive and noncompetitive inhibition. Analysis of the gut microbiota in Drosophila has revealed considerable variation in the dominant bacterial taxon with developmental age, even under uniform rearing conditions (Fig. This review has uncovered numerous areas for future research focused on important gaps in the comparative physiology of the GI tract. The populations were geographically widely distributed and the interpopulation variation in copy number was related most strongly to diet and not geographic proximity. Ontogeny of gastrointestinal tract in hybrid flounder jasum. Genta FA, Dillon RJ, Terra WR, Ferreira C. Potential role for gut microbiota in cell wall digestion and glucoside detoxification in Tenebrio molitor larvae. [Data from Fig. The gut bacteria of insects: Nonpathogenic interactions. Most research has focused on expression response to dietary nutrients. This class of lipid-related molecules is distinctive from other lipids in two important respects. The back of the mouth opens into the pharynx which is the common area for the passage of both food and air. Food intake rate and excreta egestion rate are related to the flow rate of digesta through the gut/reactor that, in relation to its size, determines retention time: Thus, conversion or extraction efficiency should be reciprocally related to flow rate. Koenig JE, Spor A, Scalfone N, Fricker AD, Stombaugh J, Knight R, Angenent LT, Ley RE. Furthermore, this effect was correlated with changes in transcript abundance of the maltase gene, indicating the central role of gene expression in regulating digestive function (242, 243). In both young chickens and house sparrows, the posthatch increases in maltase activity are controlled by intrinsic regulatory mechanisms, but maltase activity can also be doubled by increased dietary carbohydrate (33, 43), and this is correlated with a doubling in maltase-glucoamylase mRNA transcription in the house sparrows (242). Irie M, Terada T, Katsura T, Matsuoka S, Inui K. Computational modelling of H+-coupled peptide transport via human PEPT1. Adult rats exhibit diurnal variation in expression of sugar transporters in the intestine, with induction of GLUT2 (glucose transporter), GLUT5 (fructose transporter), and Pept-1 expression 3 to 4 h before the onset of peak feeding by the animal (100, 371, 402). Mammals feeding on fungal or plant material need to process the dominant sterols in these foods: ergosterol and phytosterols, respectively. Quercetin-3-glucoside is transported by the glucose carrier SGLT1 across the brush border membrane of rat small intestine. Gilbert ER, Li HF, Emmerson DA, Webb KE, Wong EA. Dietary neutral lipid level and source in marine fish larvae: Effects on digestive physiology and food intake. The latter pattern had not been apparent in previous surveys of fish species, but those surveys did not focus on closely related species that lack large differences in gut size and predigestive mechanical processing that can confound the analysis (179). Once in the cell, the glucose is widely accepted to be transported down its concentration gradient across the basolateral membrane into the circulation by GLUT2. In studies using radiolabeled L-glucose and L-arabinose, their uptake by intestine in vitro was not significantly inhibited by high concentrations (50100 mmol/L) of unlabeled L-glucose, L-arabinose, L-rhamnose, or D-glucose (280), which makes it unlikely that their absorption is carrier mediated. In: Mackie RI, White BA, editors. Goel G, Puniya AK, Aguilar CN, Singh K. Interaction of gut microflora with tannins in feeds. Buddington RK, Malo C. Postnatal development of nutrient transport in the intestine of dogs. Developmental changes in glucose transport, lipid composition, and fluidity of jejunal BBM. Lehman RM, Lundgren JG, Petzke LM. Gut size changes in relation to variable food quality and body size in grasshoppers. Binder HJ. As a first approximation, conversion or extraction efficiency can be expressed as: Digesta retention time can be measured using inert markers fed to both vertebrates and invertebrates (248). Shifts during development in feeding versus nonfeeding or in dietary habits occur in diverse invertebrates, including lobsters (235) and insects (301), and digestive enzyme levels may change in correlation with changes in the major dietary substrates. They suggested that this is the reason why tubular guts predominate among complex, multicellular animals. 11), and it used to be assumederroneouslythat cholesterol is taken up exclusively by simple diffusion. Shafizadeh TB, Halsted CH. The expression of various transporter genes is regulated in anticipation of food. Human/Pig Comparisons | Fetal Pig Dissection Guide | Goshen College The complexed tannins may escape both enzymatic and microbial degradation, and may be excreted in the feces, thus protecting the animal from either damage to the gut epithelium, true digestibility reduction, or toxicity (11). Multiple transporters are involved with a range of specificities, including two neutral amino acid transporters in Manduca sexta (KAAT1 and CAATCH1), both members of the SL6 family (71, 145) with distinctive amino acid selectivities (322). The invertebrate B(0) system transporter, D, melanogaster NAT1, has unique d-amino acid affinity and mediates gut and brain functions. Biochemistry of plant secondary metabolites and their effects in animals. For many years its natural substrate(s) were not known, but its presence was widely used in intestinal studies as a marker of the apical brush border and as a marker for crypt-villus differentiation (276). . (A) Efficiency of [14C]glycerol trioleate absorption. Humans with mutational defects in amino acid uptake systems do not suffer from essential amino acid deficiencies, for example, abolition of cystine uptake caused by defect in b0,+ system (condition known as cystinuria), and aromatic amino acid uptake by defect in B0 system (Hartnup disease); and this suggests that PEPT1-mediated uptake of peptides can be substantial, sufficient to meet the dietary requirements for these essential amino acids (106). Fish guts as chemical reactors: A model of the alimentary canals of marine herbivorous fishes. Decreased polyphenol transport across cultured intestinal cells by a salivary proline-rich protein. University of Illinois researchers say the domestic pig is ideal for these studies because their brain size, rate of development, and digestive system . 6 minute read. The taxon richness of the gut microbiota, usually identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing, is typically an order of magnitude greater in vertebrates than invertebrates, and the interspecific variation in microbial composition is strongly influenced by diet. By dephosphorylating bacterial LPS, IAP reduces its toxicity. Lipolytic activities in developing turbot larvae as influenced by diet. Barbehenn RV. Diurnal variation of GLUT2 and Pept-1 is regulated by the vagus nerve, and GLUT5 by paracrine and endocrine signals in the intestine (371, 427). In the following sections, we highlight numerous examples of key digestive processes being influenced by compounds from many of the major groups of SMs (Table 4). Effect of salivary proteins on the transport of tannin and quercetin across intestinal epithelial cells in culture. Bernays EA, Driver GC, Bilgener M. Herbivores and plant tannins. Nonesterified sterol is eliminated into the gut lumen via ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters ABCG5 and ABCG8. Figure 4A adapted, with permission, from reference (243). Whether or not the animal has intrinsic cellulolytic capability, it appears that fermentative symbioses with microbes and fungi are generally important for cellulose degradation in animals (see Section Microbial transformation of digestively-intractable food constituents to compounds that are readily used by the animal). Mace OJ, Affleck J, Patel N, Kellett GL. Li S, Sauer WC, Caine WR. Carstea ED, Morris JA, Coleman KG, Loftus SK, Zhang D, Cummings C, Gu J, Rosenfeld MA, Pavan WJ, Krizman DB, Nagle J, Polymeropoulos MH, Sturley SL, Ioannou YA, Higgins ME, Comly M, Cooney A, Brown A, Kaneski CR, Blanchette-Mackie EJ, Dwyer NK, Neufeld EB, Chang TY, Liscum L, Strauss JF, III, Ohno K, Zeigler M, Carmi R, Sokol J, Markie D, ONeill RR, van Diggelen OP, Elleder M, Patterson MC, Brady RO, Vanier MT, Pentchev PG, Tagle DA. Development of intestinal transport function in mammals. Karasov WH, Caviedes-Vidal E, Hartman Bakken B, Izhaki I, Samuni-Blank M, Arad Z. A second feature that strengthens the analysis is a larger number of species measured by uniform methodology and subjected to phylogenetically informed statistical analyses. [Data from reference (290)]. Evolution of regulatory responses to feeding in snakes. Transport of glucose and fructose across the mammalian enterocyte by SGLT1, GLUT2, and GLUT5. Development of lipase activity in yolk membrane and pancreas of young turkeys. The SCFA transporter(s) have yet to be identified definitively. Helicoverpa larvae have been identified whose chymotrypsin activity is resistant to a serine PI from Nicotiana alata, whereas other Helicoverpa larvae have an enzyme variant that is susceptible (132). German DP, Neuberger DT, Callahan MN, Lizardo NR, Evans DH. With shorter retention time in conjunction with the same or lower enzymatic capacity, one would predict from Eq. Schondube JE, Martinez del Rio C. Sugar and protein digestion in flowerpiercers and hummingbirds: A comparative test of adaptive convergence. Forcella M, Berra E, Giacchini R, Parenti P. Leucine transport in brush border membrane vesicles from freshwater insect larvae. Robinson CJ, Schloss P, Ramos Y, Raffa K, Handelsman J. Robustness of the bacterial community in the cabbage white butterfly larval midgut. Spiller HA, Winter MI, Weber JA, Krenzelok EP, Anderson II, Ryan MI. Effect of D-glucose on intestinal permeability and its passive absorption in human small intestine in vivo. In at least two mammalian lineages and one avian species, the latter can be a site of lysozyme secretion. There is some digestive plasticity evident during frog development, because the glucose/proline ratio was nearly doubled in bullfrog tadpoles raised on lettuce compared with those raised on beef (437). Guinea pigs also have elevated numbers of eosinophils prior to sensitization and challenge (Zosky and Sly . For some insects feeding on a nutritionally unbalanced diet, such that one dietary component is in excess, the enzymes mediating the degradation of that dietary component can be downregulated. Developmental regulation of nutrient transporter and enzyme mRNA abundance in the small intestine of broilers. Activity of lactase-phlorizin hydrolase declines at this time, associated with changes in transcription, translation, and protein turnover (see discussion about lactase, above). Wang (2007) has described ABCG5/G8 as the gatekeeper to avoid high plant sterols in plasma." Proteomic evaluation of chicken brush-border membrane during the early posthatch period. Transporters involved in glucose and water absorption in the Dysdercus peruvianus (Hemiptera: Pyrrhocoridae) anterior midgut. The digestive system of a pig is well suited for complete concentrate based rations that are typically fed. Effects of diet quality on phenotypic flexibility of organ size and digestive function in Mongolian gerbils (. Other data relate to a variety of mammals, birds, reptiles and fish, as well as a number of invertebrates [reviewed in reference (249)]. to acquire those all. Two pathways across the tight junction have been identified in various epithelial cell types, including gut epithelia: a high-capacity pore pathway, permeable to small uncharged molecules and ions (<0.8 nm diam. Lecona E, Olmo N, Turnay J, Santiago-Gomez A, Lopez de Silanes I, Gorospe M, Lizarbe MA. Geographical distribution and diversity of bacteria associated with natural populations of Drosophila melanogaster. Darias MJ, Murray HM, Gallant JW, Douglas SE, Yufera M, Martinez-Rodriguez G. Ontogeny of pepsinogen and gastric proton pump expression in red porgy (, Darias MJ, Zambonino-Infante JL, Hugot K, Cahu CL, Mazurais D. Gene expression patterns during the larval development of European sea bass (, Dash MC, Nanda B, Mishra PC. Comparisons of digestive tract anatomy. It can be seen that the human Avian species typically have shorter mean retention time of digesta than do similar sized nonflying mammalian species (315). Lavin SR, Karasov WH. Nutritional development of feeding strategies in arctic ruminants: Digestive morphometry of reindeer. Flint HJ, Duncan SH, Scott KP, Louis P. Interactions and competition within the microbial community of the human colon: Links between diet and health. Eisert R. Hypercarnivory and the brain: Protein requirements of cats reconsidered. Following uptake by diffusion and via transporters, these products are transported to the endoplasmic reticulum, where they are used to synthesize diacylglycerols (DAGs), TAGs, phospholipids, cholesterol esters, etc. Dietary modulation of intestinal enzymes of the house sparrow (, Caviedes-Vidal E, Karasov WH. Ohkuma M, Noda S, Hongoh Y, Nalepa CA, Inoue T. Inheritance and diversification of symbiotic trichonymphid flagellates from a common ancestor of termites and the cockroach Cryptocercus. Sauter SN, Roffler B, Philipona C, Morel C, Rome V, Guilloteau P, Blum JW, Hammon HM. are an absolute dietary requirement (135, 211). German DP, Nagle BC, Villeda JM, Ruiz AM, Thomson AW, Contreras Balderas S, Evans DH. The entire topic of coevolution of digestive enzymes and plants SMs is not only interesting but also very important, because plant biologists are now experimentally manipulating in crop plants the genes that regulate inhibitory SMs to enhance resistance to crop pests. Ontogenetic development of intestinal nutrient transporters. Consequently, SCFAs permeate membranes more slowly by simple diffusion, and cellular transport mechanisms are especially important for SCFA absorption. Walgren RA, Lin JT, Kinne RKH, Walle T. Cellular uptake of dietary flavonoid quercetin 4-beta-glucoside by sodium-dependent glucose transporter SGLT1. It can transport thousands of di- and tripeptides with low affinity and high capacity, but neither free amino acids nor tetrapeptides (106). The site is secure. (1)], which assumes that conversion/extraction efficiency will decline when reactant concentration increases unless compensatory changes occur in retention time and/or hydrolysis/absorption rate. The absorptive cells are columnar epithelial cells called enterocytes. However, the transport proteins responsible for SCFA/HCO3 exchange have yet to be identified, raising the possibility that SCFA is coupled to HCO3 via multiple transporters, for example, SCFA/H+ cotransport and Cl/HCO3 exchange (99). Among other passerine birds that do express sucrase-isomaltase, sucrase activity is ten times higher in the hummingbird lineage (Trochilidae), even when compared with other nectar-consuming passerine birds (393). Another advantage of paracellular absorption is that it is an energetically cheap way to match absorption rate to substrate concentration in the diet and lumen. Developmental study of a-methyl-D-glucoside and L-proline uptake in the small intestine of the White Leghorn chicken. Meleshkevitch EA, Assis-Nascimento P, Popova LB, Miller MM, Kohn AB, Phung EN, Mandal A, Harvey WR, Boudko DY. (1) and (2)]. Kofuji PYM, Akimoto A, Hosokawa H, Masumoto T. Seasonal changes in proteolytic enzymes of yellowtail. (A) Functional groups of bacteria (SRBs, sulfate-reducing bacteria). Food consumption and utilization. Differences Between Human And Pig Digestive System Structure-function relationships (415) and evolutionary relationships (102) among enzyme isoforms can be discerned as well. Scharf ME, Kovaleva ES, Jadhao S, Campbell JH, Buchman GW, Boucias DG. Buddington RK, Diamond J. Ontogenetic development of nutrient transporters in cat intestine. Ontogenetic expression and regulation of Na-D-glucose cotransporter in jejunum of domestic chicken. Feast to famine: The effects of food quality and quantity on the gut structure and function of a detritivorous catfish (Teleostei: Loricariidae). All vertebrates apparently lack the capacity to degrade cellulose and related complex polysaccharides of plant cell walls. Ribonucleases, secreted by the exocrine pancreas into the lumen of the small intestine, digest the abundant RNAs of rapidly growing bacteria. Notably, the neutral amino acid transporter in Drosophila (DmNAT6) can mediate the transport of most amino acids apart from lysine, arginine, aspartate, and glutamate; and, remarkably, it can also take up D-isomers of several amino acids (321). Van der Horst DJ, Roosendaal SD, Rodenburg KW. A pig weighing around 60 kilograms will, for example, resemble a human body in many ways, including fat distribution, cover of hair and ability to attract insects. Typically, the results match option (ii). But, studies have shown that a variety of flavonoids from multiple subclasses inhibit glucose transport (82, 255, 267, 274, 307, 408, 411). Lowry JB, McSweeney CS, Palmer B. Among the latter group, some species are foregut fermenters in whom the microbial fermentation chamber resides proximal to the small intestine, and some are hindgut fermenters in whom the fermentation chamber resides distal to the hosts stomach and small intestine (248) (Fig. Identify structures that are a part of the digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system, reproductive system, and excretory system. Fowler HG, Forti LC, Brandao CRF, Delabie JHC, Vasconcelos HL. William Karasov has appreciated support from the U.S. National Science Foundation (IOS-1025886), U.S. Department of Agriculture (Hatch), and the U.S.-Israel Binational Science Foundation. 8A). Induction of digestive alpha-amylases in larvae of. Modeling has facilitated research that links digestive physiology with whole animal nutrition in production agriculture with vertebrates (380, 384) and aquaculture with invertebrates (376), and with ecological phenomena such as foraging ecology (298, 468) and community structure (353, 469). Where sufficient information is available, phylogenetically informed analyses are included to provide better evidence of evolutionary trajectories and stronger inferences about the adaptive nature of certain traits. Caviedes-Vidal E, Afik D, Martinez del Rio C, Karasov WH. Levels of lactase activity are trace or immeasurably low in chickens (84) and in house sparrows (P. domesticus) and common bulbuls (Pycnonotus bartatus) (K. M. Lessner andW. Cai KH, Bennick A. Yufera M, Darias MJ. The human and pig digestive system are very similar.That's why they are what you dissect in Biology. Evolutionary matches of enzyme and transporter capacities to dietary substrate loads in the intestinal brush border. Terra WR, Ferreira C. Biochemistry of digestion. Thus, IAP helps keep in check the intestines defensive mechanism(s) against bacteria, and in this way, it participates in intestinal tolerance of commensal bacteria. Miller MM, Popova LB, Meleshkevitch EA, Tran PV, Boudko DY. Response of nutrient digestibilities to feeding diets with low and high levels of soybean trypsin inhibitors in growing pigs. Consumption of sugars, hemicellulose, starch, pectin and cellulose by the grasshopper. A remarkable report (209) of acquisition of a feature for digesting plants describes the rapid appearance in 36 years (ca. Of particular note are the transporters mediating sterol flux across the apical membrane of enterocytes. The pig has a circulatory system that is quite similar to the human circulatory system. Batchelor DJ, Al-Rammahi M, Moran AW, Brand JG, Li X, Haskins M, German AJ, Shirazi-Beechey SP. Herbaceous taxa had longer digestive tracts and higher activity of the carbohydrases amylase and laminarinase in their guts, whereas insectivorous species had higher chitinase activities. The peptides are hydrolyzed by multiple cytosolic hydrolases, and the resultant amino acids are exported via the basolateral membrane by multiple transporters (see Table 3). Nisbet AJ, Billingsley PF. In healthy individuals, dietary phytosterols reduce serum cholesterol levels, probably through their more efficient incorporation than cholesterol into micelles, resulting in reduced cholesterol uptake (223); this is why sitosterol is sold as a functional food. Because of this, it has been argued that they are not typically disruptors of intrinsic breakdown processes in either insects (26) or monogastric mammals (409). Crava CM, Bel Y, Lee SF, Manachini B, Heckel DG, Escriche B. Trehalase (hydrolyzes trehalose, the principal blood sugar in insects). Maltase activity is found even in the intestine of carnivorous fish such as trout, and apparently can be induced, perhaps permanently, by feeding high dextrin (25%60%) diet early in life (182). It is opposite the dorsal side. But, this response leads to increased fecal loss of the energy and nitrogen in the tannin-protein complex and thus to a decline in apparent digestive efficiency, though not true digestive efficiency per se (409). Sundset MA, Barboza PS, Green TK, Folkow LP, Blix AS, Mathiesen SD. A comparative survey of the hydrolytic enzymes of ectoparasitic and free-living mites. Modeling has also contributed to understanding impacts of temperature change (297, 474) that could improve predictions of animal responses to climate change (13). Coll M, Guershon M. Omnivory in terrestrial arthropods: Mixing plant and prey diets. Many of the nutrient transporters are orthologous across different animal phyla, though functional details may vary (e.g., glucose and amino acid transport with K+ rather than Na+ as a counter ion). Postnatal development and organ maturation in, Knott KK, Barboza PS, Bowyer RT, Blake JE. There is a shunt between the wall of the right and left atrium called the foramen ovale. The products of lipid digestion in the gut of the spider Polybetes phythagoricus are taken up by cells of the midgut diverticulum, where they are processed to TAGs and phospholipids and exported via two distinct carriers: a high-density lipoprotein (equivalent to the insect lipophorin) and a very high density lipoprotein that also contains hemocyanin (275). The analysis was conducted on 106 individuals of 60 species from 13 orders of mammals. As in many insects, chymotrypsin-like SPs are major midgut digestive enzymes. The difference in paracellular absorption between birds and nonflying mammals is not simply explained by mediated absorption in birds of the carbohydrate probes that are presumed to be absorbed passively. They are then packaged with lipoproteins to form chylomicrons, which are passed through the Golgi apparatus for exocytosis. Krogdahl A, Sell JL. The key glucose transporters in mammals and birds (184) are a Na+/glucose cotransporter SGLT1 (a member of the Na+/solute symporter family) and the facilitative transporter GLUT2, which transports glucose, fructose, mannose, and galactose with low affinity and N-acetyl-glucosamine with high affinity (444). Metagenomic discovery of biomass-degrading genes and genomes from cow rumen. Freund J-N, Jost B, Lorentz O, Duluc I. Bolognesi R, Terra WR, Ferreira C. Peritrophic membrane role in enhancing digestive efficiency: Theoretical and experimental models. The activity of lysozyme in the stomach of the foregut fermenters is over three orders of magnitude higher than that found in animals with no foregut fermentation. Accordingly, the small intestine has a high capacity for pinocytotic absorption of intact protein and intracellular breakdown by lysosomal proteinases. Effects of tea polyphenols on emulsification of olive oil in a small intestine model system. Compare pig anatomy to human anatomy. Angela Douglas has appreciated support from U.S. National Science Foundation (IOS-0919765), National Institutes of Health (1R01GM095372), U.S. Department of Agriculture (2009-02179), and the Sarkaria Institute of Insect Physiology and Toxicology. It is a brush border enzyme that hydrolyzes monophosphate esters, but its physiological role in digestion has not been well understood. The tips of the microvilli form web-type structures called glycocalyx.Amino acids and simple sugars released into the brush border membrane are absorbed into the microvilli first, then into the villi, and then pass into the circulatory system. 1BD), one sees that although there are not data for every food type in each taxon, mean digestive efficiency for food types is inversely related to the relative amount of refractory material in the foods. Ranges are given for the following food types: ne, nectar; vf, vertebrate flesh; wv, whole vertebrates; in, whole invertebrates; se, seeds; fr, fruit; ve, vegetation (grass, dicot leaves, and twigs); de, detritus. Is the pig a good model for man? When digestive features are not well matched to dietary substrate(s), digestion is inefficient. Delayed effects of the terms of separation of rat pups from lactating females and low-protein diet on enzyme activity in digestive and non-digestive organs. The efficiencies plotted in figure BD are a mix of values of dry matter and energy digestibilities, but these measures tend to be close to each other and highly correlated (248). Dietary modulation of some digestive enzymes and Metabolic processes in developing marine fish: Applications to diet formulation. Proteases (such as pepsins, trypsins, and chymotrypsins) and peptidases (e.g., carboxypeptidases and aminopeptidases). The expression of digestive enzymes and nutrient transporters approximately matches the dietary load of their respective substrates, with relatively modest excess capacity. Specifically, the complex polysaccharides are hydrolyzed to simple sugars, and then subjected to bacterial fermentation, with the net release of fermentation waste products, typically SCFAs, including acetate, butyrate, and propionate (420). The incidence of eukaryotic microorganisms (e.g., protists and yeasts) in the GI tract of invertebrates is not well studied, although the Cryptocercidae woodroaches and lower termites are renowned for their possession of taxonomically unique groups of Oxymonadid and Hypermastigid flagellated protists (91, 349).
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